Chapter 5. Discourse structure

5.1.1. Manual discourse markers

The manual markers used in coordination and subordination (SYNTAX 3) can also be considered as discourse connectors from a discourse point of view. The same markers also play a role in the dynamics of a signed conversation (PRAGMATICS 10).

The various discourse markers used in LIS can be classified into four categories according to their function: i) discourse structuring markers, ii) discourse connectors, iii) reformulation markers, and iv) argumentative markers.

Discourse structuring markers are used to link phrases or sentences binding together pieces of discourse. They enhance the logical structure of a text and express several different relationships, such as introducing, connecting or concluding a discourse. Some examples of discourse structuring markers in LIS are listed and shown below.

Table: Discourse structuring markers in LIS

An example of the contextual use of an initial marker is reported below. The discourse particle is marked in bold.

well ix₂ hope ix_2pl understand ix₁ explain

‘Well, I hope you understood what I explained.’

The following sentence includes the sign plus, employed as continuative discourse marker. For the sake of clarity, it is highlighted in bold.

please house come_back window CL(A): ‘roll_up_the_blinds’ CL(4): ‘rolled_up_blinds’ plus cat ix_a food give_3a

‘Please, when you come back home, roll up the blinds and also feed the cat.’

The example below shows a case of final discourse marker in bold.

sign ix parameter four handshape palm_orientation, movement location finish

‘The sign has four parameters: handshape, palm orientation, movement and location. Finish.’

Discourse connectors are those markers which link sentences and form more complex discursive structures. Some examples of discourse connectors are reported in the table below.

Table: Discourse connectors in LIS

An example of discourse connectors in LIS is the sign consequence. Such discourse particle creates a consequential relationship among sentences, as displayed in the example below.

municipality project eliminate consequence ix company close

‘The municipality cancelled the project and as a result the company closed down.’

Reformulation markers are used to rephrase sentences or pieces of discourse, by adding information or by adding further explanation to a concept, as displayed below.

Table: Reformulation markers in LIS

An example of a reformulation marker is shown below.

municipality ix money invest neg_o meaning project pe collapse

‘The municipality does not have money, namely the project fell apart.’

Argumentative markers are supposed to reinforce or exemplify the discourse, examples of these two markers are reported in the table below.

Table: Argumentative markers in LIS

In the examples below, we show how argumentative markers can be used in context. Respectively, example (a) displays a case of reinforcement marker and example (b) shows a case of exemplificative marker.

a. veneto region exactly ix(loc) padua ix(loc) done protest number most

‘Most of the protests have taken place in Veneto, especially in Padua.’

b. ix₂ glove++ type poss₃ clean take

‘Take the gloves, those for cleaning.’

5.1.2. Non-manual discourse markers

In LIS, discourse particles may also be realised through non-manual markers, which can reinforce the meaning of the manual sign or bear independent meaning. The example below shows a case of adversative coordination (SYNTAX 3.1). Note that the discourse particle but is omitted and substituted by a particular use of non-manuals which scope over the adversative clause, specifically, mouth corners down (md).

md

ix₁ dwell rome ix(loc) impossible_no_way ix(loc) milan ix₁ accept

‘I coudn’t live in Rome, but I’d be willing to live in Milan.’

5.1.3. Strategies using signing space

The signing space may also be used to convey information at a discourse level. The signing space may cover several discourse functions: i) signalling a topic which is not at-issue and deviates from the main discourse, ii) marking contrast between two or more referents, or iii) realising temporal relationships.

In the example below, the signing space is used to establish a main topic (a play at the theatre) and a secondary topic (the information about the play’s writer). Through lateral body leans, the signer associates the main topic with the contralateral area and the secondary topic with the ipsilateral area.

bl-left

yesterday theatre ix_a title which d-o-n-g-i-o-v-a-n-n-i ix_a

bl-right

pe_b past writer who ix_b m-o-z-a-r-t ix_b period dead before ix_3b

bl-left

theatre ix_a ix₁ see beautiful-int

‘Yesterday, the theatre presented the play ‘Don Giovanni’, the play was written by Mozart before he died, I looked at the play, which was very beautiful.’

Alternatives can be encoded in the signing space as well. This may be done by placing two options in different locations of the horizontal plane, as displayed in the example below.

ix₂ buy or ix_a apple_a or window_b choose ix₂

‘You can choose to buy an Apple Mac or a Windows PC.’

The use of signing space may also convey temporal information (PRAGMATICS 8), such as the establishment of consequential events. The anaphoric time line, which is realised through space, follows an imaginary diagonal trajectory. Anaphoric temporal references are determined within the discourse and are expressed with respect to a point of reference marked along this line. In the sentence below, the point of reference is represented by the birth of the signer’s nephew, which is signed close to the signer’s body on the ipsilateral side. The move to Bologna realises a relation of posteriority and is expressed farther from the signer’s body on the contralateral side.

nephew be_born ix₁ bologna move

‘After my nephew was born, I moved to Bologna.’

5.2.1. Manual strategies

Pronouns and determiners in LIS are able to manually track back referents previously introduced in the discourse structure. Co-reference is realised by pointing toward those locations that were previously established and associated with the relevant referents. This cohesive device contributes to ensure reference tracking.

An example of pronominal expressions was presented above: references to gianni and maria was realised by directing pointing pronouns toward the locations in space previously associated with these two referents. In addition, an example of a demonstrative form is presented below.

book ix(dem)_[proximal] ix₁ read done ix(dem)_[distal] not_yet

‘As for this book, I have read it, that one not yet.’

However, not only pronominal or demonstrative forms are used for reference tracking, also other linguistic strategies which are language specific. For example, LIS, as other sign languages, makes use of some linguistic devices typical of the visual-gestural channel.

One of these elements consists in handshapes classifiers (MORPHOLOGY 5) which denotes an entity and adds cohesion to the discourse. Three major classes of predicative classifiers, such as entity classifiers (MORPHOLOGY 5.1.1), bodypart classifiers (MORPHOLOGY 5.1.2) and handle classifiers (MORPHOLOGY 5.1.3) are used for representing referents which move, are being moved or can be located somewhere. In the case of predicative classifiers, the subject can be explicitly mentioned, but it can also be omitted. An example of predicative classifier which allows the omission of the object pronoun (‘him’) is reported below and highlighted in bold.

dom: dog ix_a dog _aCL(spread curved open 5): ‘bite’_b

n-dom: person CL(G): ‘walk’_b---------------------------------------------

‘A dog bit a person who was walking by.’

In LIS, signers can also produce discourse markers with the non-dominant hand guiding the discourse and providing a conceptual landmark. These strategies are known as buoys (PRAGMATICS 2.2.3). List buoys are employed to keep a visual track of both ordered and unordered entities which are introduced into the discourse.

Buoys differ from numerals in that they are mostly realised with the fingers oriented to the ipsilateral side rather than upward. Moreover, the association between the referent and the finger is generally enhanced by moving the dominant index toward the tip of the appropriate finger of the non-dominant hand. An example of buoy is presented below.

ix₁ child four half ix_a male ix_b female

dom:. first ix_[index] sport football ix_[middle] volleyball

n-dom: four--------- sport football four--- volleyball

dom: ix_[ring] skating ice ix_[pinky] unexpected chess

n-dom: four skating ice four------------------ chess

‘I have four children, half are male and half female. The first plays football, the second plays volleyball, the third ice-skates, and the fourth, unexpectedly, plays chess.’

Finally, another strategy which enhances textual cohesion in LIS is a phenomenon called dominance reversal. Such linguistic strategy permits to shift the dominance of the hand for reasons of linguistic convenience. In the second part of the sentence displayed below, the signs are produced with the non-dominant hand. In this case, the classifier for house is placed on the ipsilateral side and is realised with the dominant hand. Therefore, the signer chooses to sign the remain part of the sentence with the non-dominant hand in order to facilitate the production of the rest of the sentence. Meanwhile he keeps track of the house through the dominant hand.

dom: house exist two CL(spread curved open 5): ‘house is_at_a’------------- ------------

n-dom: house CL(spread curved open 5): ‘house is_at_b’ ix_b poss₁

man go_b

‘There are two houses, one is mine. A man goes there.’

5.2.2. Non-manual strategies

Another important linguistic device for reference tracking is role shift. Role shift (PRAGMATICS 6) is used for referring to a particular participant and assuming his/her perspective. The participant referred to may be some other person or the signer himself/herself in a different time and place.

Some non-manual markers, such as the temporary interruption of eye contact between signer and interlocutor, indicates that the referential shift is taking place. In case of role shift, no other linguistic strategies are needed: for example, the repetition of the nominal expression denoting the referred entity is possible, but not necessary. An example of role shift is reported below and highlighted in bold.

rs: bear

bear CL(closed 5): ‘bear_lumber’

‘The bear is lumbering.’

In LIS, the specific use of squint eyes accompanying topic expressions (PRAGMATICS 4.3.2) seems to highlight that the entity the signer is presenting has been previously introduced into the discourse. However, this marker also suggests that the referent is no longer easily accessible in the mind of the interlocutor. An example of this use is reported below.

sq

man ix(dem) ix_{1 3}tell₁ everything

‘The man (you know) has told me everything.’

5.2.3. Strategies using signing space

As already announced, the signing space also plays an important function in the retrieval of previously introduced elements. In particular, agreement predicates allow the omission of the argument (SYNTAX 2.4.2), but they still guarantee the possibility to track back the correct entity. In the example proposed below, the locations where the agreement verb is realised are spatially connected to the locations where the two subjects gianni and maria have been previously produced.

gianni_a maria_b book _3aCL(flat open 5): ‘give_ book’_3b

‘As for Gianni and Maria, he gave the book to her.’

The agreement verb give allows the omission of the subject and the object, since the referents were clearly established in the signing space. Another example displays a case of farther reference tracking.

room kitchen_a mother CL(flat closed 5): ‘be_at’ exist, ix₁ bathroom_{b a}go_{b b}go_a disappear_a

‘Mum was in the kitchen, I went to the bathroom and when I came back, she was gone.’

The referential entity mum, introduced in the first sentence, is retrieved in the second sentence despite the shift of the subject. This is possible because the verb of the second sentence, disappear, agrees with the location of the subject (mother).